Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University

In this Issue

In this Issue

In this Issue

View PDF

Abstract

In the context of confrontation and military conflict, political transformations occurring in various spheres of public life, processes reshaping these spheres in most Eastern Partnership countries and elsewhere, are taking shape within a global restructuring of global society. These transformations are impossible without the active intervention of the state, local governments, and other actors within the political system, and therefore without the formation of a specific set of means, methods, and new instruments for political governance in developed and underdeveloped societies. Contemporary social realities require a thorough understanding of the resilience of political development in the context of transitivity, which prompts an examination of the existing dynamic imbalance of political exchanges and the asymmetry of political relations in communicative discourse through the prism of asymmetry and symmetry, stability, and sustainability. New demands for changes in the quality of public administration highlight the challenges of studying the nature of interactions between government structures, civil society organizations, the media, and communications. Sustainable political development and the increased social effectiveness of governing institutions necessitate an integrative approach to the legitimization of political change, allowing for the elimination of meaningful sociocultural gaps in the political space. The key characteristics and development trends of the political system in modern global and regional societies reflect the specific nature of transformation processes, representing a complex set of qualitative changes in the structure, functioning, and interactions of the political system with the geopolitical and geoeconomic environment. Political institutions and dominant value orientations simultaneously act as both a condition of existence and a result of functioning in relation to each other. During the process of political transformation, global and regional societies have encountered a number of problems characteristic of countries in transition (high social costs of reform, oligarchic ownership, widespread corruption, and instability of democratic institutions). The transformation of the political systems of the Eastern Partnership countries took place in challenging social and cultural conditions, as traditional components of the value system, established types of political consciousness, and dominant strategies of political behavior to some extent hindered the adoption of democratic norms and the entrenchment of democratic institutions. Therefore, democratic transformations in many countries have been accompanied by a delegitimization of political innovations based on values.

References

Regional Policy

Regional Policy

A Rational-Functionalist Approach to Analyzing Cooperation within the BRICS Framework։ Multipolarity of International Relations and Assessment of its Possibilities

Franck Jiresert Techa Djoumessi

View PDF

Abstract

This article analyzes the approaches of rationalism and functionalism to assess the dynamics of cooperation between countries within the BRICS. Such an approach shows that states, as rational actors, enter into cooperation when they see tangible benefits from collective action, in particular, in satisfying common utility needs. Studying the BRICS system from the perspective of this approach requires an assessment of specific practical areas of cooperation, such as economic development, financial stability, and public health. In addition, this requires examining the extent to which the institutional mechanisms within the BRICS system sufficiently contribute to the achievement of common goals. However, in general, the rationalist perspective may not take into account the influence of ideological factors, power asymmetries, and domestic political considerations that shape the landscape of cooperation. Comparative analysis requires recognizing the obstacles of rationalism and functionalism in modern international relations. While the pursuit of mutual benefit is a powerful incentive for cooperation, it is necessary to assess the different levels of commitment and obstacles among the BRICS member states. Thus, this article is devoted to the proponents of calibrated utility rational functionalism, supplemented by ideas from constructivist and neorealist theories to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities inherent in BRICS cooperation. This multifaceted approach allows for a more accurate assessment of the viability and limitations of BRICS interstate cooperation.

References

Alden, Chris, and Maxi Schoeman. 2025. “Being Africa’s BRIC(S): South Africa’s Foreign Policy Turn from ‘Neo-Liberalism’ to the ‘New Era.’” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 71-90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2503212.

Ayodele, Odilile. 2025. “The Emerging BRICS Financial Architecture: A Catalyst for Global Governance Reform?” Politikon 52 (1): 99-118. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2025.2503106.

Bastanifar, Iman, Kashif Hasan Khan, and Halil Koch. 2025. “Understanding BRICSIZATION through an economic geopolitical model.” Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity 11 (1), 100440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joitmc.2024.100440.

Belli, Luca, and Min Jiang. 2025. “Conclusion: Digital Sovereignty in the BRICS: Structuring Self-Determination, Cybersecurity, and Control.” In: Digital Sovereignty in the BRICS Countries: How the Global South and Emerging Power Alliances Are Reshaping Digital Governance, edited by Min Jiang and Luca Belli, 214-238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009531085.014.

Biba, Sebastian. 2016. “New Concerns, More Cooperation? How Non-Traditional Security Issues Affect Sino–Indian Relations.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 45(3): 3-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/186810261604500301.

Carvalho, Gustavo de, Jaimal Anand, and Sanusha Naidu. 2025. “BRICS Expansion: Adaptive Response or Proactive Restructuring of Global Governance?” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 9-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2523507.

Chen, Huiping. 2025. “The Impacts and Implications of China’s “Belt & Road” Initiative on China’s International Investment Law Practice.” In: China’s Practice in International Investment Law. Modern China and International Economic Law. Springer, Singapore, pp. 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-5016-3_5

Cheng, Joseph Y. S. 2015. “China’s Approach to BRICS.” Journal of Contemporary China 24 (92): 357-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2014.932518.

Cochrane, Logan, and Esmat Zaidan. 2024. “Shifting Global Dynamics: An Empirical Analysis of BRICS + Expansion and Its Economic, Trade, and Military Implications in the Context of the G7.” Cogent Social Sciences 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2333422.

Duggan, Niall, Bas Hooijmaaijers, Marek Rewizorski, and Ekaterina Arapova. 2021. “Introduction: ‘The BRICS, Global Governance, and Challenges for South–South Cooperation in a Post-Western World’.” International Political Science Review 43 (4): 469-480. https://doi.org/10.1177/01925121211052211.

Duggan, Niall, Juan Carlos Ladines Azalia, and Marek Rewizorski. 2021. “The structural power of the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) in multilateral development finance: A case study of the New Development Bank.” International Political Science Review 43 (4): 495-511. https://doi.org/10.1177/01925121211048297.

Esteves, Paulo, and Carlos Frederico Coelho. 2025. “Be Careful What You Wish for: Brazil and BRICS in Three Acts.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 91-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2528980.

Hooijmaaijers, Bas. 2021. “The internal and external institutionalization of the BRICS countries: The case of the New Development Bank.” International Political Science Review 43 (4): 481-494. https://doi.org/10.1177/01925121211024159.

Larionova, Marina, and Andrey Shelepov. 2019. “The G20 and BRICS: Engaging with International Institutions for Global Governance.” South African Journal of International Affairs 26 (4): 643-661. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2019.1694065.

Macías, Borja. 2025. “Promoting an Alternative Economic Bloc? The People’s Republic of China’s Strategic Approach to Strengthening the BRICS.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 113-132. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2525310.

Mansour, Imad, and Abdelhadi Baiche. 2025. “The impact of BRICS expansion on rivalries in West Asia and North Africa.” Asian Review of Political Economy 4 (10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44216-025-00052-w.

Men, Honghua. 2025. Great Power Competition in International Relations. In: China's Diplomacy Responding to World Transformation in the New Era. Understanding China. Springer, Singapore, pp. 105-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-5467-3_6.

Merino, Gabriel E., and Jiang Tianjiao. 2025. “BRICS+ and the Global Power Transition.” Chinese Political Science Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-025-00291-5.

MFA of the RF. 2025. Article by Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov for Laos’ media, “Russia and Laos: 65 Years of Time-Tested Friendship”, November 20, 2025. Accessed October 27, 2025. https://mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/news/2060363/?lang=en.

Müller, Melanie. 2025. “Between Global Geopolitics and National Interests: BRICS Cooperation in the Mineral Sector.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 215-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2519981.

Nach, Marida, and Ronney Ncwadi. 2024. “BRICS Economic Integration: Prospects and Challenges.” South African Journal of International Affairs 31 (2): 151-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2024.2380676.

Naik, Shraddha. 2025. “India’s Aspirations for Global Governance Through BRICS: Significance for South Asia.” In: Global and Regional Governance in a Multi-Centric World, edited by Gabriel Rached, Maria Lagutina, and Giovanni Barbieri, 71-103. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-82677-1_3.

Omoigberale, Omonye. 2025. “The Expanded BRICS: A Catalyst for Global Transformation or Advocate for Incremental Change?” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 51-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2518522.

Papa, Mihaela, and Zhen Han. 2025. “The evolution of soft balancing in informal institutions: the case of BRICS.” International Affairs 101 (1): 73-95. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae278.

Rodrigues Vieira, Vinícius G. 2025. The Expansion of the BRICS and the Future of the World Order. In: The Great Decoupling: A New Global Order/Disorder?, edited by Mobo Gao, Justin O’Connor, Baohui Xie, and Jack Butcher, 125-141. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8426-7_7.

Sá, Rafaela Mello Rodrigues de, and Ana Saggioro Garcia. 2025. “Convergences between the BRICS Business Council and the New Development Bank: Implications of the BRICS Membership Expansion.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 267-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2529581.

Siwisa, Buntu. 2020. “Forging State-Building through BRICS: Remodelling South Africa’s Foreign Policy Approach on Zimbabwe.” South African Journal of International Affairs 27 (3): 297-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2020.1815571.

Stuenkel, Oliver. 2020. BRICS and the Future of Global Order: Second Edition. Lanham: Lexington Books. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781978730687.

Süsler, Buğra. 2025. “Turkey and BRICS: Strategic Autonomy and a Search for New Partnerships in a Post-Western World.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1–2): 175-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2497869.

Wang, Linlin, Yanting Zhang, and Hanting Xi. 2022. “The Political Economy of China’s Rising Role in the BRICS: Strategies and Instruments of the Chinese Way.” The Chinese Economy 55 (4): 317-328. https://doi.org/10.1080/10971475.2021.1972545.

Wang, Peter Brian M, and Rahul Mishra. 2025. “Assessing the Impact of an Expanded BRICS on the International Order: The Role of Power and Legitimacy.” South African Journal of International Affairs 32 (1-2): 33-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2025.2509571.

Zhou, Qiangwu. 2025. “Reforming Global Governance for Sustainable Development: Role of the NDB and its Cooperation with China.” In: Global Development and Cooperation with China: New Ideas, Policies and Initiatives for a Changing World, edited by Henry Huiyao Wang, and Mabel Lu Miao, 47-59. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2452-2_6.
Regional Policy

The Political Hybridization of Middle Eastern States: Iraq as a Case Study

Kardo Rached, Jalal Mistaffa

View PDF

Abstract

This article analyzes the future features of Iraqi statehood, drawing on hybrid regime theory and a broad understanding of political system transformation. In this context, we assume that post-ISIS Iraq has a pluralistic security perspective (state versus militia), which has led to a second feature: the challenge to the monopoly of violence by the Popular Mobilization Forces. This, in turn, affects the legitimacy of political authority and the state’s defense policy. In the article, using hybrid regime theory, social identity theory, and Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of homology, the authors argue that Iraq is not a failed state, but a country with a highly hybrid political system, where formal democratic institutions coexist with informal networks of sectarian and militarized power. By examining the historical development of Shia militias and their integration into the Iraqi state system since 2014, the article reveals the rise of parallel governance structures and security pluralism. The dual identity of the Popular Mobilization Forces, as a state-backed military force and an autonomous sectarian formation, challenges Max Weber’s ideas of sovereignty and the sociology of the state, blurring the line between legitimacy and coercion. The example of Iraq is illustrative and particularly interesting, as the formation of a new elite took place in conditions of political and sectarian conflict and struggle. Moreover, the emergence of a new elite in the new Iraqi state and Iraqi society occurred simultaneously with regional transformation processes, characterized by global and regional clashes between different centers of power, which, in turn, influenced the hybridization of Iraq’s domestic political processes.

References

Amnesty International. 2020. Iraq: Protest death toll surges as security forces resume brutal repression. January 23, 2020. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/01/iraq-protest-death-toll-surges-as-security-forces-resume-brutal-repression/.

Beese, Yorck. 2024. “The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), 2013-2014: Broadening the Window to Jihad.” In: The Film of the Islamic State: The Cinefication of Jihadi Video. Springer VS, Wiesbaden, pp. 141-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-44555-3_4.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991. Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Bratton, Michael, and Nicholas van de Walle. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174657.

Cassani, Andrea. 2014. “Hybrid What? Partial Consensus and Persistent Divergences in the Analysis of Hybrid Regimes.” International Political Science Review / Revue Internationale de Science Politique 35 (5): 542-558.

d’Avray, David. 2023. “Methodological Individualism in Weber’s Sociology of Religion.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Methodological Individualism, Volume II, edited by Nathalie Bulle, and Francesco Di Iorio, 249-270. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41508-1_11.

Diamond, Larry. 2002. “Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2): 21-35. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0025.

Dodge, Toby. 2012. Iraq: From War to a New Authoritarianism. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies.

Dodge, Toby. 2024. “Iraq, Consociationalism and the Incoherence of the State.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 30 (1): 28-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2023.2215600.

Ekman, Joakim. 2009. “Political Participation and Regime Stability: A Framework for Analyzing Hybrid Regimes.” International Political Science Review / Revue Internationale de Science Politique 30 (1): 7-31.

Haddad, Fanar, 2020. “What is ‘Sectarianism’?.” In: Understanding ‘Sectarianism’: Sunni-Shi’a Relations in the Modern Arab World. Oxford University Press, pp. 15-48. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197510629.003.0002.

Hasan, Harith. 2023. “Transnationalization of a Borderland: Center, Periphery, and Identity in Western Iraq.” In: How Border Peripheries are Changing the Nature of Arab States, edited by Maha Yahya, 85-103. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09187-2_5.

Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan A. Way. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Problems of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511781353.

Linde, Jonas․ 2009․ “Into the gray zone։ The recent trend of “hybridization” of political regimes․” QoG Working Paper Series 7: 1-29. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.gu.se/sites/default/files/2020-05/2009_7_Linde_0.pdf․

Mako, Shamiran, and Allison McCulloch. 2024. “Afterword: Consociationalism and the State: Situating Lebanon and Iraq in a Global Perspective.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 30 (1): 164-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2024.2305505.

Mampilly, Zachariah Cherian. 2011. Rebel Rulers: Insurgent Governance and Civilian Life during War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Mansour, Renad, and Faleh A. Jabar. 2017. “The Popular Mobilization Forces and Iraq’s Future.” Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://carnegie-production-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/static/files/CMEC_63_Mansour_PMF_Final_Web.pdf.

Mansour, Renad, and Peter Salisbury. 2019. Between Order and Chaos: A New Approach to Stalled State Transformations in Iraq and Yemen. London: Royal Institute for International Affairs at Chatham House. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2019-09-17-StateTransformationsIraqYemen.pdf.

Mansour, Renad. 2017. “Iraq after the Fall of ISIS: The Struggle for the State.” London: Royal Institute for International Affairs at Chatham House. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2017-07-04-iraq-after-isis-mansour-final.pdf.

Mansour, Renad. 2021. Networks of Power: The Popular Mobilization Forces and the State in Iraq. London: Royal Institute for International Affairs at Chatham House. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/2021-02-25-networks-of-power-mansour.pdf.

O’Driscoll, Dylan, and Irene Costantini. 2024. “Conflict Mitigation versus Governance: The Case of Consociation in Iraq.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 30 (1): 65-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2023.2188648.

Palani, Kamaran. 2025. “How Power-Sharing Endures: Generational Change and Institutional Persistence in Iraq.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics (September): 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2025.2558053.

Schedler, Andreas. 2002. “Elections Without Democracy: The Menu of Manipulation.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2): 36-50. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jod.2002.0031.

Skaaning, Svend-Erik. 2025. “More violent state repression in hybrid regimes?.” Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft 19: 457-489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12286-025-00632-3.

Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. 2000. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In: Organizational Identity: A Reader, edited by Mary Jo Hatch, and Majken Schultz, 56-65. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005.

UNDP. 2025. Iraq National Human Development Report 2025. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.undp.org/iraq/publications/iraq-national-human-development-report-2025.

Viviani, Lorenzo. 2024. “The Weberian Sociology of Leadership.” In: Leadership and Democracy: A Political Sociology of the Personalisation of Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 91-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-77163-7_4.

WHO. 2023. Iraq Annual Report 2022. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.emro.who.int/images/stories/iraq/Iraq-Annual_Report_2022_FINAL_13-Jul_2023.pdf.

Yoshioka, Akiko. 2026. “Hybrid Governance with Armed Non-State Actors in a Fragile State: The Case of Iraq and the Kurdistan Region.” In: Governance without Government in the MENA Region: State, Non-State Actors and Evolving Paradigms, edited by Moosa Elayah, 47-70. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-03953-8_3.

Security Policy

Security Policy

New Political Growth Points for Strategic Cooperation Between Russia and Iran: Sharing Experience or Strengthening Trust?

Garik Keryan, Svetlana Jilavyan

View PDF

Abstract

The article analyzes new political dimensions of Russian-Iranian relations, which are in many ways a unique example of interstate cooperation, which is due to the peculiarities of the international political situation and the interests of the two states. As the most influential states of the Caspian region and having long-term experience of regional interstate cooperation, Russia and Iran undoubtedly lay claim to regional leadership. This determines a fairly extensive set of political disagreements that exist between the two countries. Sometimes these disagreements give rise to an active political struggle, which often involves other Caspian states. The economic interests of the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran also do not always allow the possibility of coordination on a parity basis. An example here is the long-standing discussion about the status of the Caspian Sea and the division of its oil-bearing shelf, as well as the competition between different routes of export oil pipelines. Attention is drawn to the fact that Russia and Iran, being, based on the realities of the geographical and international political position, regional states-competitors, on the world stage often show themselves as allies, developing coordinated approaches to key international problems. In this situation, the general level of relations between the two states is subject to sharp changes, since interactions include periods of exacerbation of bilateral contradictions and periods of close interaction.

References

Andersen, Lars Erslev. 2023. “China and Iran Relations in the Context of the Changing World Order.” In: China’s Engagement with the Islamic Nations: A Clash or Collaboration of Modern Civilisation?, edited by Young-Chan Kim, 79-97. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31042-3_5.

Aziz, Hamidreza. 2025. “Strategic Transactionalism: The Iran-Russia Partnership.” The Middle East Council on Global Affairs. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://mecouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/IB-10_25-Iran-Russia-Partnership_Edited.pdf.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 2024. Iran Economic Monitor: Sustaining Growth Amid Rising Geopolitical Tensions. With a Special Focus Recent Poverty and Inequality Trends in Iran (2020-2022). Spring 2024. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099051007102421530/pdf/IDU-39800829-628d-4b5a-a9f9-728b946987e4.pdf.

Keynoush, Banafsheh. 2022. Russia-Iran Relations: Indispensable Neighbors. In: The World Powers and Iran: Before, During and After the Nuclear Deal. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 85-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09249-7_4.

Kia, Mehrdad. 2023. Historical Setting: Iran on the Brink of Collapse. In: The Clash of Empires and the Rise of Kurdish Proto-Nationalism, 1905-1926: Ismail Agha Simko and the Campaign for an Independent Kurdish State. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 23-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-44973-4_2.

Kiani, Davood. 2021. “Iran and Russia Relations: Conceptions of Cooperations.” In: The Geopolitics of Iran, edited by Francisco José B. S. Leandro, Carlos Branco, and Flavius Caba-Maria, 275-291. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3564-9_11.

Kozhanov, Nikolai A. 2023. “Between Development, Growth and Survival: Some Current Features of Iran’s Model of Socio-Economic Development.” Journal of International Analytics 14 (1): 72-91 (in Russian). https://doi.org/10.46272/2587-8476-2023-14-1-72-91.

Mahmoudian, Arman. 2023. “The War in Ukraine: The Turning Point of Russia-Iran Relations.” In: The Great Power Competition Volume 5: The Russian Invasion of Ukraine and Implications for the Central Region, edited by Adib Farhadi, Mark Grzegorzewski, and Anthony J. Masys, 141-160. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40451-1_7.

MFA of the RF. 2025. “Foreign Ministry statement in connection with the entry into force of the Treaty on Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran.” October 2, 2025. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/2050909/.

Smagin, Nikita. 2025. “New Russia-Iran Treaty Reveals the Limits of Their Partnership.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 21, 2025. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2025/01/russia-iran-strategic-agreement?lang=en.

TASS. 2025a. “Tsivilev: Russia-Iran trade turnover increased by 16.2% in 2024: It amounted to $4.8 billion, the Russian Minister of Energy noted.” April 25, 2025. https://tass.ru/ekonomika/23782661.

TASS. 2025b. “No military alliance envisaged by Russian-Iranian treaty — top Iranian diplomat.” January 15, 2025. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://tass.com/world/1899273.

Tazmini, Ghoncheh. 2021. “Russian-Iranian Relations: Impact on Persian Gulf Interests.” In: Russia’s Relations with the GCC and Iran, edited by Nikolay Kozhanov, 177-203. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4730-4_8.

Tyukaeva, Tatiana. 2024. “Russia’s Relations with the Gulf States Amidst Regional and Global Transformations.” In: The “Asian Turn” in Russian Foreign Policy, edited by Anatoly Torkunov, Dmitry Streltsov, and Ekaterina Koldunova, 517-537. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5392-5_19.

World Bank. 2025. Macro Poverty Outlook (October). Accessed November 30, 2025. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/65cf93926fdb3ea23b72f277fc249a72-0500042021/related/mpo-irn.pdf.
Security Policy

U.S.-Iran Hostility and the Pursuit of Nuclear Technology Development in the Context of the Global Energy Transition: An Integrative Analysis

Rotimi Adeforiti

View PDF

Abstract

This article analyzes the Iranian nuclear program, which oscillates between friendship and hostility between the United States and Iran, threatening sustainable global peacebuilding and energy transition goals. Although research has been conducted on the relationship between the two countries, the results of existing studies have not been integrated to answer questions about the implications of the issues surrounding the Iranian nuclear program for energy transition aspirations. This study analyzes the consequences of hostility between the two countries due to the Iranian political elite's pursuit of nuclear technology, thereby attempting to implement national steps toward a global energy transition. The study hypothesizes that the previously existing hostile relationship between the two countries will influence their preference for nuclear technology as a measure of energy transition. This study uses an integrative analytical approach as its data collection method. The theoretical basis of the analysis is offensive realism, which is applied from the perspective that the desire to maximize power, egoism, and fear of other states are the conditions responsible for the conflict and competition observed in the international system. The survival of the modern Iranian state in the global system underscores the reason for this behavior of political leadership in its relations with other states. In this regard, the study notes that Iran's nuclear issues do not affect the country's desire to use nuclear technology. To acquire nuclear technology, the country must meet certain criteria, including technical, social, and political ones. However, the primary emphasis is on the social and political criteria, including an effective government and a politically stable economy. The study recommends that Iran's political leadership take real and proactive steps to adopt and implement consolidating democratic principles to ensure success in achieving its goal of establishing a civilian nuclear program.

References

Adem, Seifudein. 2024. “Ali Mazrui’s Nuclear Pragmatism: Could It Inspire Practical Policies to Reduce Nuclear Threats?” The Nonproliferation Review 31 (4-6): 189-209. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2025.2569142.

Alcaro, Riccardo. 2021. “Europe’s Defence of the Iran Nuclear Deal: Less than a Success, More than a Failure.” The International Spectator 56 (1): 55–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2021.1876861.

Aryanpur, Vahid, Mohammad Saeid Atabaki, Mousa Marzband, Pierluigi Siano, and Kiarash Ghayoumi. 2019. “An overview of energy planning in Iran and transition pathways towards sustainable electricity supply sector.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112: 58-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.047.

Bazoobandi, Sara. 2020. Iran Nuclear Programme, a Brief History. In: The New Regional Order in the Middle East: Changes and Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 69-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27885-4_4.

Bowen, Wyn, Dina Esfandiary, and Matthew Moran. 2016. Introduction: Understanding Iranian Proliferation Behaviour. In: Living on the Edge: Iran and the Practice of Nuclear Hedging. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-27309-3_1.

Dinler, Müberra, and Ali Balcı. 2021. “When leadership traits meet historic success: Hassan Rouhani and the nuclear deal of 2015.” Digest of Middle East Studies 30 (1): 6-21. https://doi.org/10.1111/dome.12225.

Edwards, Alex. 2014. The Balance of Power in the Persian Gulf, 1945-91. In: “Dual Containment” Policy in the Persian Gulf: The USA, Iran, and Iraq, 1991-2000. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 35-52. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137447241_3.

Egeland, Kjølv. 2021. “The Ideology of Nuclear Order.” New Political Science 43 (2): 208-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/07393148.2021.1886772.

Eslami, Mohammad. 2024. “Exploring the Driving Forces Behind Iran’s Nuclear Deterrence Strategy: A Novel Methodological Approach.” Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament 7 (1): 211-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/25751654.2024.2319381.

Fuhrmann, Matthew. 2009. “Spreading Temptation: Proliferation and Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation Agreements.” International Security 34 (1): 7-41. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2009.34.1.7.

Gaietta, Michele. 2015. Conclusion. In: The Trajectory of Iran’s Nuclear Program. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 213-217. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137508256_11.

Goode, James F. 1989. America to the Rescue?. In: United States And Iran 1946-51: The Diplomacy Of Neglect. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 61-70. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-20277-5_6.

Herzog, Stephen. 2025. “Dual-Track Nuclear Disarmament: Institutional Design of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.” The Nonproliferation Review 32 (1-3): 55–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2025.2591997.

Hussain, Nazir. 2015. “US-Iran Relations: Issues, Challenges and Prospects.” Policy Perspectives 12 (2): 29-47. https://doi.org/10.13169/polipers.12.2.0029.

Hussain, Syed Jaleel. 2022. “To Be or Not to Be: Great Power Dilemmas and the Iranian Nuclear Programme.” Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs 9 (1): 150-165. https://doi.org/10.1177/23477970221076753.

Jacobson, Mark Z. 2020. “What Problems Are We Trying to Solve?” Chapter. In 100% Clean, Renewable Energy and Storage for Everything. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108786713.

Javed, Hafez, and Muhammad Ismail. 2022. “Iran’s Nuclear Deal (JCPOA): Threats and Opportunities for the Regional Peace and Security.” Chinese Political Science Review 7: 467-483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-020-00174-x.

Jewell, Jessica. 2011. “Ready for nuclear energy?: An Assessment of capacities for launching new national nuclear power programs.” Energy Policy 39 (3) (March): 1041-1055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.10.041.

Johnson, Dominic D. P., and Bradley A. Thayer. 2016. “The Evolution of Offensive Realism: Survival under Anarchy from the Pleistocene to the Present.” Politics and the Life Sciences 35 (1): 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1017/pls.2016.6.

Juneau, Thomas, and Sam Razavi. 2018. “Costly Gains: A Cost-Benefit Assessment of Iran’s Nuclear Program.” The Nonproliferation Review 25 (1-2): 69-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2018.1477456.

Kamel, Amir Magdy. 2018. “The JCPOA: How Iran’s Grand Strategy Stifled the US.” Middle Eastern Studies 54 (4): 706-722. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48543801.

Kaur, Sarabjit, and Nagalaxmi M. Raman. 2024. “Continuity and change in US–Iran relations: Analyzing the Iranian nuclear deal from Obama to Biden.” Digest of Middle East Studies 33 (4): 410-429. https://doi.org/10.1111/dome.12341.

Kerr, Paul. 2017. “The JCPOA and Safeguards: Model or Outlier?” The Nonproliferation Review 24 (3-4): 261-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2018.1432326.

Khan, Saira. 2024. US Exit from the Deal and Tehran’s Intense Proliferation Interest. In: The Iran Nuclear Deal: Non-proliferation and US-Iran Conflict Resolution. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 213-261 . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50196-8_10.

Khojasteh, Danial, Davood Khojasteh, Reza Kamali, Asfaw Beyene, and Gregorio Iglesias. 2018. “Assessment of renewable energy resources in Iran, with a focus on wave and tidal energy.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (Part 2) (January): 2992-3005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.110.

Kim, Chul Min, Hyeon Seok Park, and Man-Sung Yim. 2024. “Nuclear Latency, Nuclear Power, and Nuclear Proliferation.” The Nonproliferation Review 31 (1-3): 95-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2024.2406590.

Kitano, Mitsuru. 2016. “Opaque Nuclear Proliferation Revisited: Determinants, Dynamism, and Policy Implications.” The Nonproliferation Review 23 (3-4): 459-479. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2017.1279792.

Kortunov, Petr, and Ivan Timofeev. 2021. “Controversial Efficiency? The Experience of the U.S. Sanctions Against Iran.” In: The Geopolitics of Iran, edited by Francisco José B. S. Leandro, Carlos Branco, and Flavius Caba-Maria, 215-244. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3564-9_9.

Kwong, Jamie. 2023. “Messaging and the Bomb: Public Attitudes toward Nuclear Proliferation.” The Nonproliferation Review 30 (1-3): 5-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2024.2314832.

Lin, Boqiang, and Sami Ullah. 2024. “Modelling the impacts of changes in nuclear energy, natural gas, and coal on the environment through the novel DARDL approach.” Energy 287 (129572). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129572.

Mathew, M. D. 2022. “Nuclear energy: A pathway towards mitigation of global warming.” Progress in Nuclear Energy 143 (104080). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2021.104080.

Meier, Oliver, and Maren Vieluf. 2021. “Upsetting the Nuclear Order: How the Rise of Nationalist Populism Increases Nuclear Dangers.” The Nonproliferation Review 28 (1-3): 13-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700.2020.1864932.

Mousavian, Seyed Hossein, and Mohammad Mehdi Mousavian. 2018. “Building on the Iran Nuclear Deal for International Peace and Security.” Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament 1 (1): 169-192. https://doi.org/10.1080/25751654.2017.1420373.

Mousavian, Seyed Hossein. 2023. “The rise and fall of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.” Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs 32-47. Accessed August 30, 2025. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/3533492/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-joint-comprehensive-plan-of-action/.

Muellner, Nikolaus, Nikolaus Arnold, Klaus Gufler, Wolfgang Kromp, Wolfgang Renneberg, and Wolfgang Liebert. 2021. “Nuclear energy - The solution to climate change?.” Energy Policy 155 (112363). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112363.

Oryani, Bahareh, Yoonmo Koo, Shahabaldin Rezania, and Afsaneh Shafiee. 2021. “Barriers to renewable energy technologies penetration: Perspective in Iran.” Renewable Energy 174: 971-983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.04.052.

Rees, Morgan Thomas. 2023. “Ontological (in)Security and the Iran Nuclear Deal—Explaining Instability in US Foreign Policy Interests.” Foreign Policy Analysis 19 (3) (orad013). https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orad013.

Rezaei, Farhad. 2017. Proliferation, Sanctions, and Rollback: A Multidisciplinary Approach. In: Iran’s Nuclear Program: A Study in Proliferation and Rollback. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44120-7_1.

Sadekin, Sirazam, Sayma Zaman, Mahjabin Mahfuz, and Rashid Sarkar. 2019. “Nuclear power as foundation of a clean energy future: A review.” Energy Procedia 160: 513-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.200.

Soltani, Amir, Mohammad Amin Imani, and Mohammad Sajad Imani. 2026. “Comprehensive strategic assessment of Iran's renewable energy potentials through a hybrid multi-criteria decision-making approach.” Renewable Energy 256 (Part A) (123896). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.123896.

The White House. 2025. “President Trump Has Always Been Clear: Iran Cannot Have a Nuclear Weapon.” June 17, 2025. Accessed August 30, 2025. https://www.whitehouse.gov/articles/2025/06/president-trump-has-always-been-clear-iran-cannot-have-a-nuclear-weapon/.

Valadbaygi, Kayhan. 2023. “Unpacking the 2015 Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA): Internationalisation of capital, imperial rivalry and cooperation, and regional power agency.” Politics 45 (2): 202-222. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957231172060.

Comparative politics

Comparative politics

Measuring the Political System Stability of Armenia and Israel from 2008 to 2023: A Comparative Analysis Using the SIPS Model

Armen Mirzoyan

View PDF

Abstract

This article examines the political stability of Armenia and Israel from 2008 to 2023 using the Stability Index of Political Systems (SIPS) model in a comparative context. The article aims to identify the extent to which internal and external factors shape the stability of political systems in small and medium-sized states in the face of a number of regional and global challenges and risks. The comparative analysis reveals that the experiences of both Armenia and Israel reveal a broader pattern: in small and medium-sized states, particularly those located in geopolitically sensitive and security-challenged regions, political stability is primarily determined by the dynamics of external factors. The results indicate that in both countries, external influences, particularly those related to the national security environment, regional conflicts, and foreign policy pressures, had a dominant impact on domestic political processes and institutional stability. In this context, by highlighting the primacy of external factors, the article contributes to the academic debate on how small states ensure their political stability in the face of persistent regional and global vulnerability.

References

Abbas, Khurram. 2024. “GCC-Israel Rapprochement Under Abraham Accords: Implications for Israel-Palestine Conflict.” In: Arab-Israel Normalisation of Ties: Global Perspectives, edited by Najimdeen Bakare, 143-159. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7765-9_8.

Abbas, Syed Qandil. 2024. “Normalization of Relations Between Israel and Arab States: An Iranian Perspective.” In: Arab-Israel Normalisation of Ties: Global Perspectives, edited by Najimdeen Bakare, 181-197. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7765-9_10.

Al Jazeera. 2023. “Israeli defence minister calls for halt to judicial overhaul.” March 25, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/25/israeli-defence-minister-calls-for-halt-to-judicial-overhaul.

Alagha, Malath, and Nabil Hussein. 2024. “The Political Economy of Israeli Economic Warfare on the Gaza Strip.” In: Gaza’s Cycle of Destruction and Rebuilding: Understanding the Actors, Dynamics, and Responses, edited by Ghassan Elkahlout, 125-145. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-67198-2_7.

Aleksanyan, Arusyak and Ashot Aleksanyan. 2021. Political Stability Challenges in the EEU countries: Political Factors Index. Yerevan, YSU press. https://doi.org/10.46991/YSUPH/9785808425200.

Aleksanyan, Arusyak. 2018. “Stability Index of Political System: Methodology and Relevance.” In: Political Stability of Newly Independent Countries under Conditions of Modernization (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine and Moldova), edited by Arusyak Aleksanyan, 16- 27. Yerevan: YSU press, 2018.

Aleksanyan, Ashot. 2025. “Russlands hybrider Einfluss auf die europäische Integration Armeniens durch den 44-Tage-Krieg: Lehren für Armenien.” Russische Schockwellen: Der Krieg in der Ukraine und die Lage in den angrenzenden Regionen, Hrsg. von Olaf Leiße, 219-235. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-46812-5_11.

Armenpress. 2024. “Armenia exported the most precious and semi-precious stones and metals. Economists on the factors of export growth.” January 30, 2024. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://armenpress.am/hy/article/1129121 (in Armenian).

Bayer, Markus, and Stella Hauk. 2023. Global Militarisation Index 2023. Bonn, Bonn International Centre for Conflict Studies (BICC). Accessed November 30, 2025. https://gmi.bicc.de/publications/gmi-2023/GMI_2023_GB.pdf.

BBC. 2014. “Russia makes drastic rate rise to 17% to stem rouble decline.” December 16, 2014. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-30490082.

Benchimol, Jonathan, Itamar Caspi, and Yuval Levin. 2022. “The COVID-19 inflation weighting in Israel.” Economists’ Voice 19 (1): 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1515/ev-2021-0023.

Cumming-Bruce, Nick. 2019. “U.N. Panel Urges Investigation Into Israeli Shootings at Gaza Border a Year Ago.” The New York Times, March 18, 2019. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/18/world/middleeast/israeli-shootings-gaza-border.html.

Eckstein, Zvi, Sarit Menahem-Carmi, Sergei Sumkin and Idit Kalisher. 2023. “The Challenges Facing the Israeli Economy in Turbulent Times.” Policy Paper 2023.06. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.runi.ac.il/media/bcmiz3qj/the-challenges-facing-the-israeli-economy-in-turbulent-times-english-version.pdf.

Financial Times. 2023. “Armenia: on the new silk road for goods to sanctions-hit Russia.” July 17, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.ft.com/content/0fc846f7-aac8-4a34-a7dd-3b0615bce983.

Freedom House. “Freedom in the World.” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world.

Ginsburg, Tom. 2023. “The Long Hand of Anti-Corruption: Israeli Judicial Reform in Comparative Perspective.” Israel Law Review 56 (3): 385-396. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021223723000158.

Hergnyan, Seda. 2015. “Drop in World Copper Price Hurts Armenia’s Economy.” Hetq, March 27, 2015. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://hetq.am/en/article/59292 (in Armenian).

Hergnyan, Seda. 2021. “Low revenue, double the deficit: 2020 budget performance.” Hetq, April 22, 2021. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://hetq.am/hy/article/129955 (in Armenian).

Hergnyan, Seda. 2022. “Investment growth at the expense of mines.” Hetq, May 4, 2022. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.hetq.am/hy/article/144123 (in Armenian).

Hergnyan, Seda. 2023. “Armenian company under new US sanctions exports equipment to Russia.” Hetq, May 20, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://hetq.am/hy/article/156278 (in Armenian).

Hostovsky Brandes, Tamar. 2018. “Basic Law: Israel as the Nation State of the Jewish People: Implications for Equality, Self-Determination, and Social Solidarity.” Minnesota Journal of International Law. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3270476.

Jabareen, Hassan, and Suhad Bishara. 2019. “The Jewish Nation-State Law.” Journal of Palestine Studies 48 (2) (190): 43-57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26873195.

Jammeh, Ismaila Y. 2022. “The Relationship Among Domestic Credit, Financial Development and Economic Growth in the Gambia. ” International Journal of Social Sciences Perspectives 10 (2): 43-60. https://doi.org/10.33094/ijssp.v10i2.598.

Ktoyan, Armen, Anush Shirinyan, and Astghik Khachatryan. 2023. The impact of Russia’s war in Ukraine on the Armenian economy: Study. Yerevan: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.kas.de/documents/269781/269830/The-Impact-of-Russias-War-in-Ukraine-on-the-RA-Economy.pdf/a69774c7-1917-91d0-42c4-13ff3cf58845.

Medina, Barak, and Ofra Bloch. 2023. “The Two Revolutions of Israel’s National Identity.” Israel Law Review 56 (3): 305-319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021223723000225.

Medina, Leandro and Schneider, Friedrich G. 2019. “Shedding Light on the Shadow Economy: A Global Database and the Interaction with the Official One.” CESifo Working Paper 7981. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3502028.

Navot, Suzie. 2023. “An Overview of Israel’s ‘Judicial Overhaul’: Small Parts of a Big Populist Picture.” Israel Law Review 56 (3): 482-501. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021223723000262.

Needham, Charles, and Maria Needham. 2023. “The Global Financial Crisis During the Years 2008 and 2009”, Journal of Business Administration Research 12 (2): 45-53. https://doi.org/10.5430/jbar.v12n2p45.

Prochniak, Mariusz, and Katarzyna Wasiak. 2017. “The impact of the financial system on economic growth in the context of the global crisis: empirical evidence for the EU and OECD countries.” Empirica 44: 295-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-016-9323-9.

Scheer, Steven. 2023. “Israel economy grew 6.5% in 2022, seen near 3% in 2023.” Reuters, February 16, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-economy-grew-65-2022-seen-near-3-2023-2023-02-16/.

Schneider, Friedrich, and Dominik Enste. 2000. “Shadow Economies Around the World: Size, Causes, and Consequences.” IMF Working Paper WP/00/26. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0026.pdf.

Shemesh, Merav, and Andrew Abir. 2024. “The changing nature of the financial system in Israel in the last two decades.” BIS Papers 148. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap148_l.pdf.

Stepanyan, Ruzanna. 2024. “An increase in crime has been recorded in Armenia.” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, October 15 2024. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.azatutyun.am/a/hayastanum-hantsavorutyan-ach-e-ardzanagrvel/33159424.html (in Armenian).

The Heritage Foundation. 2025. “Index of Economic Freedom. All country scores.” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.heritage.org/index/pages/all-country-scores.

The Statistical Committee of the RA. 2025. “The Social Snapshot and Poverty in Armenia 2024.” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://armstat.am/am/?nid=81&id=2699.

The Times of India. 2024. “Israel’s foreign trade in goods decreased in 2023.” January 15, 2024. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/israels-foreign-trade-in-goods-decreased-in-2023/articleshow/106859281.cms.

The World Bank Group. 2025a. “Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (modeled ILO estimate).” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.ZS.

The World Bank Group. 2025b. “Domestic credit provided by financial sector (% of GDP)”, Accessed November 30, 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FS.AST.DOMS.GD.ZS.

The World Bank Group. 2025c. “Foreign Direct Investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$).” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD.

The World Bank Group. 2025d. “Gini index-Israel.” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=IL.

Transparency International. 2025. “The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated.” February 11, 2025. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.transparency.org/en/news/how-cpi-scores-are-calculated.

Tsujita, Toshiya. 2025. “Facilitating and Hindering Factors in Developing National Resilience During a Crisis: The Case of Israel.” In: “Fragile Stability” as a Political Background of October 7: Current and Foreseeable Issues in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, edited by Aiko Nishikida, Chie Ezaki, and Toshiya Tsujita, 169-184. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2587-1_10.

UNDP. 2025. “Human Development Data.” Accessed November 30, 2025. https://hdr.undp.org/data-center.

Viktorov, Ilja, and Alexander Abramov. 2020. “The 2014-15 Financial Crisis in Russia and the Foundations of Weak Monetary Power Autonomy in the International Political Economy.” New Political Economy 25 (4): 487-510. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1613349.

Zargaryan, Robert. 2023. “Armenia closed 2022 with 8.3 percent annual inflation.” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, January 10, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32217194.html (in Armenian).
Comparative politics

The Difficult Path of Parliamentarism in Armenia’s Democratic Transition: How does the Separation of Powers Affect Political Responsibility in an Unconsolidated Society?

Khosrovadukht Azatyan

View PDF

Abstract

This article analyzes systems of separation of powers in modern conditions, using Armenia as an example. This case study is of considerable scholarly interest and has practical significance for state building both in Armenia itself and in other states that emerged in the post-Soviet space. This significance is determined, first and foremost, by the processes accompanying the formation of independent statehood in Armenia. The article analyzes the ability of Armenian statehood to respond to the challenges of the times and to establish a state mechanism that ensures the development of society based on democratic principles, which largely depends on the successful development of parliamentarism within the system of power relations. The question of the unity of state power and the separation of powers is a multifaceted issue encompassing economic, social, political, and ideological relations, and as such has always been and remains a subject of political science. An integral part of the complex process of transition from Armenian society to a modern one is the modernization of parliamentary culture, which consists of changes in parliamentary representation in line with changes in the economic and social spheres of society. At the same time, it is necessary, on the one hand, to maintain the stability of parliamentary representation as the most important condition for social development, and on the other hand, to expand the opportunities and forms of political participation.

References

Abrahamian, Levon, and Gayane Shagoyan. 2018. “Velvet Revolution, Armenian Style.” Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization 26 (4): 509-529. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/707884.

Aleksanyan, Arusyak and Ashot Aleksanyan. 2021. Political Stability Challenges in the EEU countries: Political Factors Index. Yerevan, YSU press. https://doi.org/10.46991/YSUPH/9785808425200.

Aleksanyan, Ashot. 2020. “Civil Society as a Phenomenon of Post-Soviet Political Life: A Threat or a Guarantor of National Security.” In: Transformation and Development: Studies in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Member States, edited by Anja Mihr, 29-49. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42775-7_3.

Atanesya, Arthur V. 2018. “Velvet Revolution” in Armenia: Potential, Gains and Risks of Political Protest Activity.” Polis. Political Studies 6: 80-98. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2018.06.06 (in Russian).

Baykov, Andrey, and Irina Bolgova. 2023. “International Relations in the Post-Soviet Space.” In: Polycentric World Order in the Making, edited by Andrey Baykov, and Tatiana Shakleina, 573-600. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5375-0_23.

Börzel, Tanja A., and Yasemin Pamuk. 2012. “Pathologies of Europeanisation: Fighting Corruption in the Southern Caucasus.” West European Politics 35 (1): 79-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2012.631315.

Bruder, Jason. 2020. “The US and the New Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) Since 1991.” In: Managing Security Threats along the EU’s Eastern Flanks, edited by Rick Fawn, 69-97. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26937-1_4.

Davidsson, Simon. 2025. “How Parliamentarism Developed in Western Europe.” British Journal of Political Science 55: e53. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123424000917.

Djankov, Simeon. 2021. “Effect of Historical Forces on Liberalization and Democratization in Transition.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Comparative Economics, edited by Elodie Douarin, and Oleh Havrylyshyn, 255-283. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50888-3_10.

Feldman, Daniel L., and Haris Alibašić. 2019. “The Remarkable 2018 ‘Velvet Revolution’: Armenia’s Experiment Against Government Corruption.” Public Integrity 21 (4): 420-432. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2019.1581042.

Hakobyan, Arsen, and Marcello Mollica. 2025. The Making of the De Facto Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. In: Conflict, Space and Transnationalism: An Ethnography of the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 95-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89207-3_4.

Ihalainen, Pasi, Cornelia Ilie, and Kari Palonen. 2018. “Parliament as a Conceptual Nexus.” In: Parliament and Parliamentarism: A Comparative History of a European Concept, edited by Pasi Ihalainen, Cornelia Ilie, and Kari Palonen, 1-16. Berghahn Books. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvgs0b7n.5.

Lavrelashvili, Teona, and Steven Van Hecke. 2023. “The End of Enlargement? The EU’s Struggle with the Western Balkans and Eastern Partnership Countries.” In: The EU Political System After the 2019 European Elections, edited by Olivier Costa, and Steven Van Hecke, 433-454. Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12338-2_20.

Lebanidze, Bidzina. 2020. Domestic prerequisites for democratization. In: Russia, EU and the Post-Soviet Democratic Failure. Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft. Springer VS, Wiesbaden, pp. 85-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-26446-8_6.

OSCE/ODIHR. 2019. “Republic of Armenia: Early Parliamentary Elections, 9 December 2018, ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report.” Warsaw, March 7, 2019. Accessed October 30, 2025. https://odihr.osce.org/sites/default/files/f/documents/b/7/413555.pdf.

OSCE/ODIHR. 2021. “Republic of Armenia: Early Parliamentary Elections, 20 June 2021, ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report.” Warsaw, October 27, 2021. Accessed October 30, 2025. https://odihr.osce.org/sites/default/files/f/documents/5/4/502386_0.pdf.

Pascariu, Gabriela Carmen, and Irina Clipca. 2025. “Resilience and the EU’s Eastern Neighbourhood Countries: Conclusions.” In: Resilience and the EU’s Eastern Neighbourhood Countries: Crisis, Transformations and Policies, edited by Gilles Rouet, and Gabriela Carmen Pascariu, 573-577. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-73379-6_21.

Paturyan, Yevgenya, and Valentina Gevorgyan. 2021. Armenian Civil Society: Explaining the Post-Communist Weakness. In: Armenian Civil Society. Societies and Political Orders in Transition. Springer, Cham, pp. 59-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63226-7_5.

Raunio, Tapio, and Thomas Sedelius. 2020. The Semi-Presidential Cases in Comparative Context. In: Semi-Presidential Policy-Making in Europe. Executive Coordination and Political Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 45-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16431-7_3.

Silander, Daniel. 2023. “Democracy in Europe: Enlarged But Eroding—A Union in Existential Crisis.” In: The EU between Federal Union and Flexible Integration: Interdisciplinary European Studies, edited by Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt, Per Ekman, Anna Michalski, and Lars Oxelheim, 25-50. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22397-6_2.

Szentgáli-Tóth, Boldizsár Artúr, 2025. The Role of Legislative Supermajority: A Comparative International Overview. In: The Past, Present, and Future of Legislation with Supermajority. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 126. Springer, Cham, pp. 23-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-99324-4_2.

Wessel, Ramses A. 2021. “Normative Transformations in EU External Relations: The Phenomenon of ‘Soft’ International Agreements.” West European Politics 44 (1): 72-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1738094.

Public Policy

Public Policy

Homeland, Belonging, and Return: Push–pull Factors of Armenian Repatriation During the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

Nvard Melkonyan, Yuliana Melkumyan

View PDF

Abstract

This article examines both push and pull factors influencing the repatriation of Armenians in the context of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict and subsequent full-scale war. Based on secondary analysis of statistical data, sociological research, and qualitative materials, including in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, the study identifies key political, social, and economic push factors driving emigration from Russia and Ukraine, including fear of ongoing war, uncertainty, instability, and deteriorating economic conditions. The article also explores key pull factors attracting Armenians to their homeland, including the desire for a safer environment, cultural and social ties, a sense of belonging, a more comfortable lifestyle, and a desire to contribute to the development of their country. Potential factors pushing for repatriation within Armenia are also highlighted, including an underdeveloped repatriation system, persistent security concerns, economic difficulties, limited infrastructure, limited opportunities for professional advancement, and low wages. Taken together, these findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex motivations driving Armenian repatriation in a context of regional instability.

References

Amétépé, Fofo, and Claudia Hartmann-Hirsch. 2011. “An outstanding positioning of migrants and nationals: the case of Luxembourg.” Population Review 50 (1): 195-217.

Anderson, Benedict. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.

Armenpress. 2023a. “25,000 Ethnic Armenians applied for Armenian citizenship in 2022.” February 13, 2023. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1104042.

Armenpress. 2023b. Trends of repatriation remain high in 2023, says High Commissioner Zareh Sinanyan. April 20, 2023. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1109139.

Asriyan, Elina, and Nvard Melkonyan. 2019. “Branding specificities of the Armenian “Velvet Revolution”.” Przegląd Wschodnioeuropejski 10 (1): 217-227. https://doi.org/10.31648/pw.4515.

Baggio, Fabio. 2008. “10 Migration and development in the Philippines.” In: International Migration and National Development in sub-Saharan Africa. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004163546.i-309.111.

Baggio, Fabio. 2025. “The Right to Remain and the Causes of Forced Migration.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 13 (1): 182-187. https://doi.org/10.1177/23315024241303116.

Bansal, Harvir S., Shirley F. Taylor, and Yannik St. James 2005. ““Migrating” to new service providers: Toward a unifying framework of consumers’ switching behaviors.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 33: 96-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070304267928

Bialas, Ulrike, Johanna M. Lukate, and Steven Vertovec. 2025. “Contested Categories in the Context of International Migration: Introduction to the Special Issue.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 48 (4): 695-717. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2024.2404493.

Boucher, Anna K., and Justin Gest. 2018. The Classification of Immigration Regimes. In: Crossroads: Comparative Immigration Regimes in a World of Demographic Change, 11-38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316416631.003.

Brah, Avtar. 1996. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. London: Routledge.. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203974919.

Castles, Stephen, Hein de Haas, and Mark J. Miller. 2020. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Basingstoke, Palgrave MacMillan.

Chernobrov, Dmitry, and Leila Wilmers. 2020. “Diaspora Identity and a New Generation: Armenian Diaspora Youth on the Genocide and the Karabakh War.” Nationalities Papers 48 (5): 915-930. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2019.74.

Clifford, James. 1994. “Diasporas.” Cultural Anthropology 9 (3): 302-338. https://doi.org/10.1525/can.1994.9.3.02a00040.

Cohen, Robin. 2008. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203928943.

Darieva, Tsypylma. 2018. “Discovering the Homeland: A New Generation of Armenian Diasporic Organizations.” Revue d’études comparatives Est-Ouest 4 (4): 59-93. https://doi.org/10.3917/receo1.494.0059.

Demko, George J., Harold M. Rose, and George A. Schnell. 1970. Population geography: a reader. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Dicken, Peter, and Sture Öberg. 1996. “The Global Context: Europe in a World of Dynamic Economic and Population Change: Europe in a World of Dynamic Economic and Population Change.” European Urban and Regional Studies 3 (2): 101-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/096977649600300202.

Duszczyk, Maciej, and Paweł Kaczmarczyk. 2022. “The War in Ukraine and Migration to Poland: Outlook and Challenges.” Intereconomics 57: 164-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10272-022-1053-6.

Ferdous, Jannatul. 2024. “Revisiting International Migration Governance.” In: Governance, Migration and Security in International Relations, edited by A.K.M. Ahsan Ullah, and Jannatul Ferdous, 17-32. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9424-3_2.

George, Justin, and Todd Sandler. 2022. “NATO defense demand, free riding, and the Russo-Ukrainian war in 2022.” Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 49: 783-806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40812-022-00228-y.

Gill, T. D. 2022. “The Jus ad Bellum and Russia’s “Special Military Operation” in Ukraine.” Journal of International Peacekeeping 25 (2): 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1163/18754112-25020002.

Guild, Elspeth, and Kees Groenendijk. 2023. “The impact of war in Ukraine on EU migration.” Frontiers in Human Dynamics 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2023.1189625

Hadj Abdou, Leila, and Federica Zardo. 2024. “Migration categories and the politics of labeling.” In: Research Handbook on the Sociology of Migration, edited by Giuseppe Sciortino, Martina Cvajner, and Peter J. Kivisto. Cheltenham, 34-45. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839105463.00010.

Hauer, Neil. 2019. “Following revolution, Armenia becomes more attractive to diaspora.” Eurasianet, August 21, 2019. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://eurasianet.org/following-revolution-armenia-becomes-more-attractive-to-diaspora.

International Organization for Migration (IOM). 2024. World migration report 2024. UN. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2024-interactive/.

Iskandaryan, Gayane. 2023. A Crack in the Iron Curtain: Armenia-diaspora Relations and Soviet Armenian Migration to Los Angeles County, 1988-2000s (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, UC Irvine. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1s6377pn.

Kamalov, Emil, Veronika Kostenko, Ivetta Sergeeva, and Margarita Zavadskaya. 2022. “Russia’s 2022 Anti-War Exodus: The Attitudes and Expectations of Russian Migrants.” PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo 790. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://www.ponarseurasia.org/russias-2022-anti-war-exodus-the-attitudes-and-expectations-of-russian-migrants/.

Koinova, Maria. 2021. Armenian Diaspora Mobilization for Nagorno-Karabakh and Genocide Recognition. In: Diaspora Entrepreneurs and Contested States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 213-242. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198848622.003.0009.

Korol, Liliia, and Pieter Bevelander. 2023. “The Power of Positive Thinking: How Positive Opinions of Refugees’ Impact on the Host Society Generate Positive Behavioural Intentions.” Journal of Refugee Studies 36 (1): 22-45. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac065.

Lee, Everett S. 1966. “A theory of migration.” Demography 3 (1): 47-57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063.

Marois, Guillaume, Alain Bélanger, and Wolfgang Lutz. 2020. “Population aging, migration, and productivity in Europe.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 (14): 7690-7695, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918988117.

McAuliffe, Marie. 2017. “Seeking the views of irregular migrants: Decision-making, drivers, and migration journeys.” In: A long way to go: Irregular migration patterns, processes, drivers and decision-making, edited by Marie McAuliffe, and Khalid Koser, 103-140. Canberra: ANU Press. https://doi.org/10.22459/LWG.12.2017.05.

Melkumyan, Yuliana, and Nvard Melkonyan. 2023. “Immigration of Russian Citizens to Armenia During the Russian-Ukrainian War That Began in 2022: Pull-Push Factors.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 2 (1(4): 137-147. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2023.2.4.137.

Muradyan, Tirayr. 2022. “14,000 Russian citizens want to obtain Armenian citizenship: most are Armenians.” Hetq. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://hetq.am/hy/article/150617 (in Armenian).

Nagy, Noémi. 2023. “The Case of David vs. Goliath?.” In: Threats to Peace and International Security: Asia versus West: Current Challenges in a New Geopolitical Situation, edited by Juan Cayón Peña, and J. Martín Ramírez, 47-61. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28336-9_3.

Öberg, Sture. 1996. “Spatial and economic factors in future South-North migration.” In: The future population of the world: What can we assume today?, edited by Wolfgang Lutz, 336-357. London: Earthscan.

Oswald, Ingrid. 2007. Migrationssoziologie. UVK Verlag. https://doi.org/10.36198/9783838529011.

Owotemu, Abel Eseoghene. 2025. “The Migration Paradox Policy Framework: An Empirical Perspective towards Global Citizenship.” Advances in Applied Sociology 15: 471-491. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2025.156028.

Pham, Hiep-Hung. 2018. “International Students’ Choice of Destinations for Overseas Study: A Specific Push-Pull Model for Vietnam.” In: Internationalisation in Vietnamese Higher Education, edited by Ly Thi Tran, and Simon Marginson, 161-175. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78492-2_9.

Phan, Peter C. 2025. Categories of Migration and Types of Migrants: The Complex Reality of Contemporary Migration. In: Christianity and Migration: A Christian Theology of Migration for Our Age. New York, pp. 64-84. https://doi.org/10.1093/9780190082307.003.0004.

Prieto Rosas, Victoria, and Antonio López Gay. 2015. Push and Pull Factors of Latin American Migration. In: Demographic Analysis of Latin American Immigrants in Spain: From Boom to Bust, edited by Andreu Domingo, Albert Sabater, and Richard R. Verdugo, 1-27. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12361-5_1.

Safran, William. 1991. “Diasporas in modern societies: Myths of homeland and return.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 1 (1): 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1353/dsp.1991.0004.

Statistical Committee of the RA. 2024a. Migration profile of the Republic of Armenia in 2022 (Based on the weighted results of the 2022 Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey). Yerevan. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://armstat.am/file/article/migration_profile_en__2022.pdf.

Statistical Committee of the RA. 2024b. Socio-Economic Situation of RA, January-August 2022 (Armenian, Russian). Yerevan. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://armstat.am/en/?nid=81&id=2513.

Tyrberg, M. (2024). The impact of discrimination and support on immigrant trust and belonging. European Political Science Review, 16(1), 18-34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773923000139

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2017. International Migration Report 2017: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/404). Accessed September 25, 2025. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf

Voitsikhovskyi, Andrii, and Oleksandr Bakumov. 2023. “Armed Aggression of the Russian Federation Against Ukraine As a Threat to the Collective Security System.” Law and Safety 88 (1): 134-145. https://doi.org/10.32631/pb.2023.1.12.

Welfens, Paul J. J. 2022. Turning Points in the Russo-Ukrainian War. In: Russia's Invasion of Ukraine: Economic Challenges, Embargo Issues and a New Global Economic Order. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 45-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19138-1_2.

Zubok, Vladislav M. 2023. “Myths and Realities of Putinism and NATO Expansion.” In: Evaluating NATO Enlargement: From Cold War Victory to the Russia-Ukraine War, edited by James Goldgeier, and Joshua R. Itzkowitz Shifrinson, 145-159. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23364-7_5.
Public Policy

Legitimacy Beyond Performance: Trust, Accountability, and Executive Authority in Transitional Regimes

Marina Margaryan

View PDF

Abstract

The article analyzes the issues of institutional legitimacy in transitional regimes, the effective solutions of which depend not only on the stability of the political system, but also on the level of technical performance. This article examines how the legitimacy of the executive branch is formed through the complex interaction between institutional effectiveness and perceived effectiveness. Based on legitimacy theory and comparative analysis methodology, the article concludes that the performance-legitimacy relationship is mediated by three important factors: trust, accountability, and communication. Despite the governance reforms implemented in the political system of the Republic of Armenia after 2018, including the Open Government Partnership initiatives and anti-corruption measures, legitimacy remains fragile when the above-mentioned mediating factors are weak. The article uses comparative cases from Georgia, France, Sweden, and the United Kingdom to reveal how institutional cultures and political events mediate the effectiveness-legitimacy nexus, pointing to comprehensive governance strategies focused on legitimacy for transitional states.

References

Abrial, Stéphanie, Chloé Alexandre, Camille Bedock et al. 2022. “Control or participate? The Yellow Vests’ democratic aspirations through mixed methods analysis.” French Politics 20: 479-503. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41253-022-00185-x.

Ali, Abdulla Jaafar, Manish Verma, and Reem Hamdan. 2025. “Impact of Outsourcing on Government Service Quality.” In: Achieving Sustainable Business through AI, Technology Education and Computer Science: Vol. 1: Computer Science, Business Sustainability, and Competitive Advantage, edited by Allam Hamdan, 585-595. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-70855-8_50.

Alıca, Berkay, and Arjan H. Schakel. 2025. “Does Multilevel Government Increase Legitimacy? Citizens’ Preferences for Subnational Authority and Acceptance of Governmental Decisions.” Journal of Public Policy 45 (2): 270-292. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X25000066.

Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London, New York: Verso.

APRI Institute. 2025. Better Policy: Reforms to Armenia’s Public Administration: A Pilot Project by APRI Armenia. Yerevan. Accessed September 30, 2025. https://apri.institute/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Better-Policy-Reforms-to-Armenia-Public-Administration-APRI-Armenia-Report-vf.pdf.

Babeck, Wolfgang. 2025. “Direct Democracy (Popular Referendum).” In: Writing Constitutions, Volume 3: Constitutional Principles, edited by Wolfgang Babeck, and Albrecht Weber, 159-179. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-85059-2_6.

Baiocchi, Gianpaolo, and Ernesto Ganuza. 2016. Popular Democracy: The Paradox of Participation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Bang, Henrik P. 2020. “David Easton's Political Systems Analysis.” In: The SAGE Handbook of Political Science, edited by Berg-Schlosser, Dirk, Bertrand Badie, and Leonardo Morlino, 211-332. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529714333.n16.

Beetham, David. 1991. Towards a Social-scientific Concept of Legitimacy. In: The Legitimation of Power. Issues in Political Theory. Palgrave, London, pp. 3-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21599-7_1.

Bol, Damien, Marco Giani, André Blais et al. 2020. “The effect of COVID-19 lockdowns on political support: Some good news for democracy?.” European Journal of political research 0 (0): 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12401.

Boos, Anna Katharina. 2024. “Conceptualizing Automated Decision-Making in Organizational Contexts.” Philosophy & Technology 37 (92). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-024-00773-5.

Broers, Laurence. 2005. “After the ‘Revolution’: Civil Society and the Challenges of Consolidating Democracy in Georgia.” Central Asian Survey 24 (3): 333-350. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634930500310444.

Broers, Laurence. 2021. “How Serzh Sargsyan and the Republican Party of Armenia lost control of a competitive authoritarian system.” In: Armenia’s Velvet Revolution: Authoritarian Decline and Civil Resistance in a Multipolar World, edited by Laurence Broers, and Anna Ohanyan, 73-99. London: I.B. TAURIS. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781788317214.0010.

BTI. 2024. Armenia Country Report 2024. Bertelsmann Stiftung. Accessed September 30, 2025. https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/ARM.

Caucasus Watch. 2025. “Pashinyan Links Legitimacy, Military Reform, and Peace to Armenia’s Security.” September 17, 2025. Accessed September 30, 2025. https://caucasuswatch.de/en/news/pashinyan-links-legitimacy-military-reform-and-peace-to-armenias-security.html.

Dancy, Geoff, and Oskar Timo Thoms. 2025. “Transitional Justice and the Problem of Democratic Decline.” International Journal of Transitional Justice 19 (1): 36-59. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijae039.

Dellmuth, Lisa, and Jonas Tallberg. 2023. “A Theory of Elite Influence and Popular Legitimacy.” Chapter. In Legitimacy Politics: Elite Communication and Public Opinion in Global Governance, 60-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009222020.003.

Egamberdiev, Bekhzod, Ihtiyor Bobojonov, and Lena Kuhn. 2025. “Institutional Trust and Subjective Well-Being in Post-Soviet Countries.” Comparative Economic Studies 67: 779-805. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41294-025-00259-z.

Erkkilä, Tero. 2014. “Hybridity in digital and algorithmic public governance.” In: Handbook of Accounting and Public Governance, edited by Giuseppe Grossi, and Jarmo Vakkuri, 32-46. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800888456.00011.

Fish, M. Steven. 1995. Democracy from Scratch: Opposition and Regime in the New Russian Revolution. Princeton University Press.

Fukuyama, Francis. 2013. “What is governance?.” Governance 26 (3): 347-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12035.

Gel’man, Vladimir. 2015. Authoritarian Russia: Analyzing Post-Soviet Regime Changes. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt155jmv1.

Grigoryan, Aleksandr and Knar Khachatryan. 2020. The Conflict of Nagorno-Karabakh: Moving Towards Peace. SSRN. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3702793.

Hilbrich, Sören. 2024. Towards a Standard of Legitimacy for Global Governance Institutions. In: On Legitimacy in Global Governance: Concept, Criteria, and Application. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 117-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54125-4_5.

Iazzolino, Gianluca, and Nicole Stremlau. 2019. “Hybrid Governance, Strategic Communication and the Quest for Institutional Legitimacy.” In: Media, Communication and the Struggle for Democratic Change: Case Studies on Contested Transitions, edited by Katrin Voltmer et al., 185-204. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16748-6_8.

Ignácz, Zsófia S. 2024. “The Relationship Between Political Legitimacy and Economic Legitimacy: Empirical Explorations of a Novel Research Approach.” Frontiers in Political Science 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2024.1198295

Ishkanian, Armine. 2008. Democracy Building and Civil Society in Post-Soviet Armenia. London: Routledge.

Ishkanian, Armine. 2015. “Self-Determined Citizens? New Forms of Civic Activism and Citizenship in Armenia.” Europe-Asia Studies 67 (8): 1203-1227. https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2015.1074981.

Jin, Nuo. 2025. “Impacts of Brexit on corporate productivity in the UK: a regionalism perspective.” The Annals of Regional Science 74 (51). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-025-01380-8.

Kaufmann, Daniel, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi. 2011. “The Worldwide Governance Indicators: Methodology and Analytical Issues.” Hague Journal on the Rule of Law 3: 220-246. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1876404511200046.

Kukhianidze, Alexandre. 2009. “Corruption and Organized Crime in Georgia before and after the ‘Rose Revolution.’” Central Asian Survey 28 (2): 215-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634930903043709.

Leotta, Antonio, Carmela Rizza, Daniela Ruggeri, and Mariastella Messina. 2025. “Transforming ESG Accountability Practices into Managerial Ones.” In: Environmental, Social, Governance (ESG): Risk, Performance, Monitoring, edited by Nicola Castellano, Francesco De Luca, Giuseppe D'Onza, Marco Maffei, and Andrea Melis, 759-780. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-76618-3_36.

Levi, Margaret, and Laura Stoker. 2000. “Political Trust and Trustworthiness.” Annual Review Political Science 3: 475-507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.3.1.475.

Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan A. Way. 2010. “The Evolution of Post-Soviet Competitive Authoritarianism.” In: Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War, 183-235. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511781353.007.

Mao, Kaixian, Huidi Lu, and Bilian Ni Sullivan. 2023. “The paradox of political legitimacy: the political inclusion and entrepreneurs’ firm strategies.” Asian Bus Manage 22: 1712-1742. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41291-023-00220-x.

Marsh, Wayde Z. C. 2025. “Trust After Tragedy: How Traumatic Events Impact Trust in Government(s) and Voting.” Political Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-025-10075-x.

Mazepus, Honorata, Wouter Veenendaal, Anthea McCarthy-Jones, and Juan Manuel Trak Vásquez. 2016. “A Comparative Study of Legitimation Strategies in Hybrid Regimes.” Policy Studies 37 (4): 350-369. https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2016.1157855.

Nikoghosyan, Hovhannes, and Vahram Ter-Matevosyan. 2023. “From ‘Revolution’ to War: Deciphering Armenia’s Populist Foreign Policy-Making Process.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 23 (2): 207-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2022.2111111.

Norris, Pippa. 2011. “Trends in Democratic Deficits.” In: Democratic Deficit: Critical Citizens Revisited, 102-116. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511973383.007.

Paturyan, Yevgenya Jenny, and Sara Melkonyan. 2024. “Revolution, Covid-19, and War in Armenia: Impacts on Various Forms of Trust.” Caucasus Survey 13 (1): 25-52. https://doi.org/10.30965/23761202-bja10036.

Pietsch, Detlef. 2025. “Development of Societies.” In: The Anti-Capitalist Society: Why a Successful Economic Model Is Under Fire. Springer, Wiesbaden, pp. 147-199. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-48823-9_5.

Rose, Richard and William Mishler. 2010. “Political Trust and Distrust in Post-Authoritarian Contexts.” CSPP Studies in Public Policy 74. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2138785.

Saracino, Daniele. 2024. “Understanding solidarity in the European Union: an analytical framework.” Theory and Society 53: 1093-1118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-024-09566-3.

Scharpf, Fritz. 1999. The European Contribution. In: Governing in Europe, Effective and Democratic? Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 156-186. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198295457.003.0006.

Stehle, Helena, Julia Lührmann, and Bernadette Uth. 2025. “Striving for Legitimacy: Strategic Energy Project Communication and Its Characteristics.” In: Strategic Sustainability Communication: Principles, Perspectives, and Potential, edited by Franzisca Weder, 95-108. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89486-2_6.

Transparency International. 2018. Corruption Perceptions Index 2018. Accessed September 30, 2025. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2018.

Transparency International. 2024. Corruption Perceptions Index 2024. Accessed September 30, 2025. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2024.

Tu, Wenyan. 2025. The Control of Bureaucracy. In: The Accountability Paradox in the Chinese Bureaucracy. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 33-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-6392-7_2.

Tyler, Tom R. 2006. Why People Obey the Law. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Viviani, Lorenzo. 2024. Personalisation, Leadership and Democracy. In: Leadership and Democracy: A Political Sociology of the Personalisation of Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 141-200. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-77163-7_5.

Yildiz, Adil. 2024. From Streets to Policies: The Impact of Yellow Vests Movement on French Public Policy. SSRN. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4765783.

Book Review

Book Review

Stepić, Milomir. 2023. Geopolitical Glossary of the Balkans, Belgrade: CATENA MUNDI, 536 pp. (in Serbian)

Martin Henzelmann

View PDF

Abstract

This is a review of the lexicon “Geopolitical Glossary of the Balkans” by Milomir Stepić. It was published in 2023 by Catena Mundi (Belgrade, Serbia). It is an encyclopedia that brings together the most important topics relating to the geopolitical context in the Balkans. The contextualization is based on the perspective represented in Serbia. Readers have an important reference work at their disposal, in which they can find information on various entries of regional geopolitics.

References

Giesel, Christoph. 2023. “Personennamen als Indikatoren slawisch-albanischer Symbiosen und Assimilationen am Beispiel von Grabinschriften in der albanisch-katholischen Mikroregion Südmontenegros.” In: Nomen est omen. Die Bedeutung von Namen in südosteuropäischen Kulturen, Herausgegeben von Wolfgang Dahmen, Petra Himstedt-Vaid und Gabriella Schubert, 87-115. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.

Hacı, Sadık. 2022. “From Interference in the Turkish Literary Language to a Total Ban. (The Language Policy of Communist Bulgaria)”. Orbis Linguarum 20 (2): 206-215. https://doi.org/10.37708/ezs.swu.bg.v20i2.5.

Mutavdžić, Predrag. 2013. The Balkans and Balkan Studies. An Introduction to Southeastern European Studies. Čigoja, Belgrade (in Serbian).

Stepić, Milomir. 2023. Geopolitical Glossary of the Balkans. Belgrade: Catena Mundi (in Serbian).
Book Review

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Humanism: For a Humane Transformation of Democracy, Economy and Culture in the Digital Age. Springer, Cham

Viktorya Melkonyan, Narine Mkrtchyan

View PDF

Abstract

This book analyzes the various dimensions of digital humanism, taking into account the transformation of democracy, economics, and culture. At every level of modern life, from global politics to everyday routines, the past few decades have seen dramatic changes. In this new reality, critically important is not only the emergence of a new information and communication field that has radically transformed the familiar infrastructure of social life, but also the explosive growth in the pace of change caused by the breakthrough development of digital technologies. In this context, numerous questions arise, not so much related to the experienced consequences of the transition to a digital society, but rather to the continuation of these changes and, more importantly, their unprecedented speed, driven by the radically increased rate of change in the technological and, consequently, social environment. This latter factor dramatically narrows the horizon of foresight and makes even the medium-term future so multifaceted that it becomes almost uncertain. The relevance of this research topic is also determined by the insufficient development of theoretical approaches to international legal regulation of digitalization and digital security in the field of information and communication technologies, the rapid development of the digital environment, and the lack of systemic international legal regulation of relations within it.

References

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Introduction. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_1.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Robots as New (Digital) Slaves. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 7-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_2.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Simulations of Emotions. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 13-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_3.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. The Problem of Autonomy and Determination in the Digital World. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 19-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_4.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. The World as the Perfect Machine Universe. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 25-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_5.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Optimization, Utilitarianism, and AI. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 31-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_6.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Economic Rationality as a Software Program. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 35-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_7.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Why Robots Don’t Have Moral Judgment. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 41-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_8.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Ethical Non-comparability. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 47-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_9.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Why AIs Fail at Moral Dilemmas. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 53-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_10.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Why AIs Can’t Think. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 57-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_11.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Virtualities and Sober Realities. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 65-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_12.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. On the Ethics of Internet Communication. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 69-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_13.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. On the Ethics of Communication Between Humans and AI. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 75-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_14.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Cultural Aspects of Digitalization. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 81-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_15.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Education. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 87-95. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_16.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Utopia of Liquid Democracy. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 97-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_17.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Socio-economic Aspects of Digitalization. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 105-110. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_18.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Transhumanist Temptations. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 111-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_19.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. On the Metaphysics of Digitalization. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 117-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_20.

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Afterword. In: Digital Humanism. Springer, Cham, pp. 121-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12482-2_21.

P - ISSN	:	2738-294X
E - ISSN	:	2738-2796

		Publishing House of Yerevan State University
Address	:	Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, 0025, 1 Alex Manoogian
Tel	:	(+374 60) 710222
		(+374 10) 555570
E-mail	:	publishing@ysu.am

Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University

Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University

About the Journal

Current Issue

Full Issue

In this Issue

In this Issue

Regional Policy

A Rational-Functionalist Approach to Analyzing Cooperation within the BRICS Framework։ Multipolarity of International Relations and Assessment of its Possibilities

The Political Hybridization of Middle Eastern States: Iraq as a Case Study

Security Policy

New Political Growth Points for Strategic Cooperation Between Russia and Iran: Sharing Experience or Strengthening Trust?

U.S.-Iran Hostility and the Pursuit of Nuclear Technology Development in the Context of the Global Energy Transition: An Integrative Analysis

Comparative politics

Measuring the Political System Stability of Armenia and Israel from 2008 to 2023: A Comparative Analysis Using the SIPS Model

The Difficult Path of Parliamentarism in Armenia’s Democratic Transition: How does the Separation of Powers Affect Political Responsibility in an Unconsolidated Society?

Public Policy

Homeland, Belonging, and Return: Push–pull Factors of Armenian Repatriation During the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

Legitimacy Beyond Performance: Trust, Accountability, and Executive Authority in Transitional Regimes

Book Review

Stepić, Milomir. 2023. Geopolitical Glossary of the Balkans, Belgrade: CATENA MUNDI, 536 pp. (in Serbian)

Nida-Rümelin, Julian, and Nathalie Weidenfeld. 2022. Digital Humanism: For a Humane Transformation of Democracy, Economy and Culture in the Digital Age. Springer, Cham

issn

Make a Submission

Information